Kenneth Alcaraz

Saturday, March 13, 2010

Biodiversity Loss (Endangered, Threatened and Extinct Species)

Biodiversity and Conservation

What is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity is a modern term which simply means " the variety of life on earth". This variety can be measured on several different levels.

Genetic - variation between individuals of the same species. This includes genetic variation between individuals in a single population , as well as variations between different populations of the same species. Genetic differences can now be measured using increasingly sophisticated techniques. These differences are the raw material of evolution.

Species - species diversity is the variety of species in a given region or area. This can either be determined by counting the number of different species present, or by determining taxonomic diversity. Taxonomic diversity is more precise and considers the relationship of species to each other. It can be measured by counting the number of different taxa (the main categories of classification) present. For example, a pond containing three species of snails and two fish, is more diverse than a pond containing five species of snails, even though they both contain the same number of species. High species biodiversity is not always necessarily a good thing. For example, a habitat may have high species biodiversity because many common and widespread species are invading it at the expense of species restricted to that habitat.

Ecosystem - Communities of plants and animals, together with the physical characteristics of their environment (e.g. geology, soil and climate) interlink together as an ecological system, or 'ecosystem'. Ecosystem diversity is more difficult to measure because there are rarely clear boundaries between different ecosystems and they grade into one another. However, if consistent criteria are chosen to define the limits of an ecosystem, then their number and distribution can also be measured.

how many species are there?

Estimates of global species diversity vary enormously because it is so difficult to guess how many species there may be in less well explored habitats such as untouched rain forest. Rain forest areas which have been sampled have shown such amazing biodiversity (nineteen trees sampled in Panama were found to contain 1,200 different beetle species alone!) that the mind boggles over how many species there might remain to be discovered in unexplored rain forest areas and microhabitats.

Global species estimates range from 2 million to 100 million species. Ten million is probably nearer the mark. Only 1.4 million species have been named. Of these, approximately 250,000 are plants and 750,000 are insects. New species are continually being discovered every year. The number of species present in little-known ecosystems such as the soil beneath our feet and the deep sea can only be guessed at. It has been estimated that the deep sea floor may contain as many as a million undescribed new species. To put it simply, we really have absolutely no idea how many species there are!

losses of biodiversity

Extinction is a fact of life. Species have been evolving and dying out ever since the origin of life. One only has to look at the fossil record to appreciate this. (It has been estimated that surviving species constitute about 1% of the species that have ever lived.)

However, species are now becoming extinct at an alarming rate, almost entirely as a direct result of human activities. Previous mass extinctions evident in the geological record are thought to have been brought about mainly by massive climatic or environmental shifts. Mass extinctions as a direct consequence of the activities of a single species are unprecedented in geological history.

The loss of species in tropical ecosystems such as the rain forests, is extremely well-publicised and of great concern. However, equally worrying is the loss of habitat and species closer to home in Britain. This is arguably on a comparable scale, given the much smaller area involved.

Predictions and estimates of future species losses abound. One such estimate calculates that a quarter of all species on earth are likely to be extinct, or on the way to extinction within 30 years. Another predicts that within 100 years, three quarters of all species will either be extinct, or in populations so small that they can be described as "the living dead".

It must be emphasised that these are only predictions. Most predictions are based on computer models and as such, need to be taken with a very generous pinch of salt. For a start, we really have no idea how many species there are on which to base our initial premise. There are also so many variables involved that it is almost impossible to predict what will happen with any degree of accuracy. Some species actually benefit from human activities, while many others are adversely affected. Nevertheless, it is indisputable that if the human population continues to soar, then the ever increasing competition with wildlife for space and resources will ensure that habitats and their constituent species will lose out.

It is difficult to appreciate the scale of human population increases over the last two centuries. Despite the horrendous combined mortality rates of two World Wars, Hitler, Stalin, major flu pandemics and Aids, there has been no dampening effect on rising population levels. In 1950, the world population was 2.4 billion. Just over 50 years later, the world population has almost tripled, reaching 6.5 billion.

In the UK alone, the population increases by the equivalent of a new city every year. Corresponding demands for a higher standard of living for all, further exacerbates the problem. It has been estimated that if everyone in the world lived at the UK standard of living (and why should people elsewhere be denied this right) then we would either need another three worlds to supply the necessary resources or alternatively, would need to reduce the world population to 2 billion.

The only possible conclusion is that unless human populations are substantially reduced, it is inevitable that biodiversity will suffer further major losses.

Some species are more vulnerable to extinction than others. These include:

Species at the top of food chains, such as large carnivores.
Large carnivores usually require fairly extensive territories in order to provide them with sufficient prey. As human populations increasingly encroach on wild areas and as habitats shrink in extent, the number of carnivores which can be accommodated in the area also decreases.

These animals may also pose a threat to people, as populations expand into wilder areas inhabited by large carnivores. Protective measures, including elimination of offending animals in the area, further reduces numbers.

Endemic local species (species found only in one geographical area) with a very limited distribution.
These are very vulnerable to local habitat disturbance or human development.

Species with chronically small populations.
If populations become too small, then simply finding a mate, or interbreeding, can become serious problems.

Migratory species
Species which need suitable habitats to feed and rest in widely spaced locations (which are often traditional and 'wired' into behaviour patterns) are very vulnerable to loss of these 'way stations'.

Species with exceptionally complex life cycles
If completion of a particular lifecycle requires several different elements to be in place at very specific times, then the species is vulnerable if there is disruption of any single element in the cycle.

Specialist species with very narrow requirements such as a single specific food source, e.g. a particular plant species.

Loss of an individual species can have various different effects on the remaining species in an ecosystem. These effects depend upon the how important the species is in the ecosystem. Some species can be removed without apparent effect, while removal of others may have enormous effects on the remaining species. Species such as these are termed "keystone" species.

why conserve biodiversity?

Ecological Reasons

Individual species and ecosystems have evolved over millions of years into a complex interdependence. This can be viewed as being akin to a vast jigsaw puzzle of inter-locking pieces. If you remove enough of the key pieces on which the framework is based then the whole picture may be in danger of collapsing. We have no idea how many key 'pieces' we can afford to lose before this might happen, nor even in many cases, which are the key pieces. The ecological arguments for conserving biodiversity are therefore based on the premise that we need to preserve biodiversity in order to maintain our own life support systems.

Two linked issues which are currently of great ecological concern include world-wide deforestation and global climate change.

Forests not only harbour untold numbers of different species, but also play a critical role in regulating climate. The destruction of forest, particularly by burning, results in great increases in the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. This happens for two reasons. Firstly, there is a great reduction in the amount of carbon dioxide taken in by plants for photosynthesis and secondly, burning releases huge quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. (The 1997 fires in Indonesia’s rain forests are said to have added as much carbon to the atmosphere as all the coal, oil and gasoline burned that year in western Europe.) This is significant because carbon dioxide is one of the main greenhouse gases implicated in the current global warming trend.

(Climate Change Information)

Average global temperatures have been showing a steadily increasing trend. Snow and ice cover have decreased, deep ocean temperatures have increased and global sea levels have risen by 100 - 200 mm over the last century. If current trends continue, scientists predict that the earth could be on average 1^oC warmer by 2025 and 3^oC warmer by 2100. These changes, while small, could have drastic effects. As an example, average temperatures in the last Ice Age were only 5^oC colder than current temperatures.

Rising sea levels which could drown many of our major cities, extreme weather conditions resulting in drought, flooding and hurricanes, together with changes in the distribution of disease-bearing organisms are all predicted effects of climate change.

Forests also affect rainfall patterns through transpiration losses and protect the watershed of vast areas. Deforestation therefore results in local changes in the amount and distribution of rainfall. It often also results in erosion and loss of soil and often to flooding. Devastating flooding in many regions of China over the past few years has been largely attributed to deforestation.

These are only some of the ecological effects of deforestation. The effects described translate directly into economic effects on human populations.

Economic Reasons

Environmental disasters such as floods, forest fires and hurricanes indirectly or directly caused by human activities, all have dire economic consequences for the regions afflicted. Clean-up bills can run into the billions, not to mention the toll of human misery involved. Susceptible regions are often also in the less-developed and poorer nations to begin with. Erosion and desertification, often as a result of deforestation, reduce the ability of people to grow crops and to feed themselves. This leads to economic dependence on other nations.

Non-sustainable extraction of resources (e.g. hardwood timber) will eventually lead to the collapse of the industry involved, with all the attendant economic losses. It should be noted that even if 'sustainable' methods are used, for example when harvested forest areas are replanted, these areas are in no way an ecological substitute for the established habitats which they have replaced.

Large-scale habitat and biodiversity losses mean that species with potentially great economic importance may become extinct before they are even discovered. The vast, largely untapped resource of medicines and useful chemicals contained in wild species may disappear forever. The wealth of species contained in tropical rain forests may harbour untold numbers of chemically or medically useful species. Many marine species defend themselves chemically and this also represents a rich potential source of new economically important medicines. Additionally, the wild relatives of our cultivated crop plants provide an invaluable reservoir of genetic material to aid in the production of new varieties of crops. If all these are lost, then our crop plants also become more vulnerable to extinction.

There is an ecological caveat here of course. Whenever a wild species is proved to be economically or socially useful, this automatically translates into further loss of natural habitat. This arises either through large-scale cultivation of the species concerned or its industrial production/ harvesting. Both require space, inevitably provided at the expense of natural habitats.

Perhaps the rain forests and the seas should be allowed to keep their secrets.

Ethical Reasons

Do we have the right to decide which species should survive and which should die out?

Do we have the right to cause a mass extinction?

Most people would instinctively answer 'No!'. However, we have to realise that most biodiversity losses are now arising as a result of natural competition between humans and all other species for limited space and resources.

If we want the luxury of ethics, we need to reduce our populations.

Aesthetic Reasons

Most people would agree that areas of vegetation, with all their attendant life forms, are inherently more attractive than burnt, scarred landscapes, or acres of concrete and buildings. Who wouldn't prefer to see butterflies dancing above coloured flowers, rather than an industrial complex belching smoke?

Human well-being is inextricably linked to the natural world. In the western world, huge numbers of people confined to large urban areas derive great pleasure from visiting the countryside. The ability to do so is regarded not so much as a need, but as a right. National governments must therefore juggle the conflicting requirements for more housing, industry and higher standards of living with demands for countryside for recreational purposes.

Mineral Depletion, Deforestation, Coral Bleaching, Mangrove Ecosystem

Mineral Depletion:

SOIL:

is the prime source of minerals on which every living cell depends for its structure and function. Vitamins, enzymes, amino acids (protein) and a host of other biologically active substances are essential for our bodies to function properly. They virtually all include minerals as an integral part of their chemical structure. Dr Linus Pauling, twice noble prize winner, said “you can trace every sickness, every disease and every ailment to a mineral deficiency”. Yet, all over the world, minerals are disappearing from agricultural soils at an alarming rate. In 1992, the official report of the Rio Earth Summit concluded “there is deep concern over continuing major declines in the mineral values in farm and range soils throughout the world”. This statement was based on data showing that over the last 100 years, average mineral levels in agricultural soils had fallen worldwide – by 72% in Europe, 76% in Asia and 85% in North America. What has caused this staggering decline?
Most of the blame lies with artificial chemical fertilisers. We now know that plants absorb 70 to 80 different minerals from the soil, while the number returned to it by plants grown with commercial fertilisers can be counted on the fingers of one hand. Every crop that is cut or animal that is sent to market marks a further depletion in the mineral status of the soil on which it was raised. Organic wastes that in former times would have been composted and returned to the land are nowadays mostly consigned to landfill sites or incineration.

Pesticides and herbicides :

also reduce the uptake of trace minerals by plants. Plants have an important relationship with certain fungi that can form networks covering several acres. The fungus obtains carbohydrates from the plant root, at the same time supplying the plant with nutrients it draws from the soil. This gives the plant access to a vastly greater mineral extraction system than is possible by their roots alone. Chemical fungicide sprays destroy these beneficial fungi and so again reduce the ability of plants to absorb soil minerals. Insecticides can also reduce trace mineral uptake by inactivating choline-containing enzymes in plants, essential for the absorption of manganese and other minerals.

The combined effect of soil mineral depletion and the reduced availability of those minerals that remain is that most of the food that we eat is mineral deficient. The table below summarizes the reductions in the average mineral content of 27 vegetables and 17 fruits, between 1940 and 1991. The results of the latest research are expected to show mineral values in continual decline.

A new study published earlier this year shows that, as might be expected, mineral levels in animal products reflect the picture in plant foods. Comparing levels measured in 2002 with those present in 1940, the iron content of milk was found to be 62% less, calcium and magnesium in parmesan cheese had each fallen by 70% and copper in dairy produce had plummeted by a remarkable 90%.
The UK government is putting resources into improving health by encouraging people to eat a healthy diet, including 5 portions of fruit and vegetables per day, but you scarcely hear a word about the problem of soil mineral depletion. Food seems to be considered as something quite separate from its source and means of production. But this is not rocket science – the foundation of human health is the quality of the food we eat, which relies ultimately on the vitality of the soil on which it is raised.

Minerals

are needed for the proper formation of blood and bone, the maintenance of healthy nerve function, heartbeat regulation, reproduction and foetal development. They are essential to the process of growth, healing and energy release. And it is not just the presence of the mineral in the body that is important – they must be in the correct ratio to each other. The level of each mineral has an effect, directly or indirectly, on every other, so if one is out of kilter the whole system is affected.

Minerals are an essential part of our natural diet and a lack of them may in part account for our increasing susceptibility to the “diseases of civilisation” – such as heart disease (magnesium), cancer (selenium), diabetes (chromium) and mental illnesses (zinc). Every one of us should take care to get the minerals we need, for the good of our health.

Deforestation Philippines Forest Figures ------------------------------------------------------------------ Forest CoverTotal forest area: 7,162,000 ha % of land area: 24% ------------------------------------------------------------------ Primary forest cover: 829,000 ha % of land area: 2.8% % total forest area: 11.6% ------------------------------------------------------------------ Deforestation Rates, 2000-2005Annual change in forest cover: -157,400 ha Annual deforestation rate: -2.1% Change in defor. rate since '90s: -20.2% Total forest loss since 1990: -3,412,000 ha Total forest loss since 1990:-32.3% ------------------------------------------------------------------ Primary or "Old-growth" forests Annual loss of primary forests: n/a Annual deforestation rate: n/a Change in deforestation rate since '90s: n/a Primary forest loss since 1990: n/a Primary forest loss since 1990:0.0% ------------------------------------------------------------------ Forest ClassificationPublic: 89.5% Private: 10.5% Other: n/a Use Production: 75% Protection: 11% Conservation: 12% Social services: n/a Multiple purpose: n/a None or unknown: 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------ Forest Area BreakdownTotal area: 7,162,000 ha Primary: 829,000 ha Modified natural: 5,713,000 ha Semi-natural: n/a Production plantation: 304,000 ha Production plantation: 316,000 ha ------------------------------------------------------------------ PlantationsPlantations, 2005: 620,000 ha % of total forest cover: 8.7% Annual change rate (00-05): -46,400,000 ha ------------------------------------------------------------------ Carbon storageAbove-ground biomass: 1,566 M t Below-ground biomass: 376 M t ------------------------------------------------------------------ Area annually affected byFire: 6,000 ha Insects: n/a Diseases: 1,000 ha ------------------------------------------------------------------ Number of tree species in IUCN red listNumber of native tree species: 3,000 Critically endangered: 46 Endangered: 35 Vulnerable: 134 ------------------------------------------------------------------ Wood removal 2005Industrial roundwood: 403,000 m3 o.b. Wood fuel: 138,000 m3 o.b. ------------------------------------------------------------------ Value of forest products, 2005Industrial roundwood: $60,272,000 Wood fuel: $722,000 Non-wood forest products (NWFPs): n/a Total Value: $60,994,000 ------------------------------------------------------------------

Almost two decades after the Catholic Church leaders warned against an ecological debacle in the country, the disappearance of forests remains. Between 1990 and 2005, the Philippines lost one-third of its forest cover. The current deforestation rate is around 2% per year, a 20 % drop from the rate of the 1990s.

“No one says there is an increase in real forest cover in the Philippines. Maybe there is an increase in the number of trees, but it is not the forest we idealize, romanticize, log or even live in,” says Peter Walpole, executive director of the Ateneo de Manila University's Environmental Science for Social Change. “We have lost most of our forest of hold over the past 50 years and, along with them, many of the ecological services they provide.”

According to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the principal cause of the decimation of the country’s forest cover are logging (both legal and illegal), shifting cultivation (locally known as kaingin), forest fires, natural calamities (like earthquake),

as well as conversion to agricultural lands, human settlements and other land uses brought about by urbanization and increasing population pressure.

“Deforestation is a symptom of a bigger problem,” says Nicolo del Castillo, an architect by profession who teaches at the University of the Philippines. “ I probably sound tacky and outdated, but I see the problem in the prevailing system of values, that is, the greed, the need to be the biggest, the wealthiest, and sometimes you feel hopeless. I am an optimist, but possibly there will be more tragedies and maybe then more people will wake up.”

The removal of forest cover makes the Philippines susceptible to various environmental catastrophes. “Most of these were not seen in such intensity and magnitude before our time,” deplored Roy C. Alimoane, the current director of the Davao-based Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center Foundation, Inc. “The signs cry out for immediate, nationwide attention.”

Deforestation has been increasingly blamed for soil erosion. Although not considered a serious threat, it is an unseen scourge. “Soil erosion is an enemy to any nation – far worse than any outside enemy into a country and conquering it because it is an enemy you cannot see vividly," warned Harold R. Watson, an American agriculturist who received a Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1985 for peace and international understanding. “It’s a slow creeping enemy that soon possesses the land.”
At least two provinces – Cebu and Batangas – have lost more than 80% of their topsoil to erosion. In Luzon, four major basins --- Bicol, Magat, Pampanga, and Agno – are in critical condition due to acute soil erosion and sedimentation.

The rampant cutting of trees has also significantly reduced the volume of groundwater available for domestic purposes. “If the forest perishes, so will the life of people,” said Diosmedes Demit, one of the farmers who joined the ‘Fast for the Forests’ in 1989. “The trees are our source of life. Without trees, there will be no water. If there is no water, there will be no life.”

Cebu, which has zero forest cover, is 99% dependent on groundwater. As a result, more than half of the towns and cities in Cebu, excluding Metro Cebu, have no access to potable water. In Metro Manila, where there are no forests to speak of, the water tables are being drawn at the rate of six to 12 meters a year causing saline water intrusion along the coastal areas.

Deforestation also brings too much water – in case of constant rain. “Rain which falls over a bare slope acts differently,” Gifford Pinchot wrote in A Primer for Forestry. “It is not caught by the crowns nor held by the floor, nor is its flow into the streams hindered by the timber. The result is that a great deal of water reaches the streams in a short time, which is the reason why floods occur.”
Remember the Ormoc tragedy in Leyte? More than five thousand people were reported to have perished from flash foods, injuring 292 others with 1,264 missing. The reported total cost of damage was P1.044 billion.

Deforestation also threatens the country’s wildlife resources. Two particular species of animals, the tamaraw and the Philippines eagle are almost extinct due to the massive deforestation. More than half the birds, amphibians and mammals endemic to the Philippines are threatened with extinction.
DENR’s Joselito Atienza said that 592 of the 1,137 species of amphibians, birds and mammals found only in the Philippines are considered “threatened or endangered.” Some 227 endemic species of plants are “critically endangered.”

Coral Bleaching

Ten percent of the world's reefs have been completely destroyed. In the Philippines, where coral reef destruction is the worst, over 70% have been destroyed and only 5% can be said to be in good condition. What has happened to destroy all of the reefs? Humans have happened.

There are two different ways in which humans have contributed to the degradation of the Earth's coral reefs, i

ndirectly and directly. Indirectly, we have destroyed their environment. As you read earlier, coral reefs can live only within a certain temperature and salinity range. Global warming caused by the green house effect has raised the temperature of the oceans so high that the coral get sick and die. Even a rise of one degree in the average water temperature can hurt the coral. Due to global warming, 1998 was the hottest year in the last six centuries and 1998 was the worst year for coral.

The most obvious sign that coral is sick is coral bleaching. That is when either the algae inside die, or the algae leave the coral. The algae are what give coral its color, so without the algae the coral has no color and the white of the limestone shell shines through the transparent coral bodies. People have been noticing coral bleaching since the turn of the century, but only since the 1980s has it gotten really bad.

The warmer water also encourages the growth of harmful algae on top of the coral, which kills it, because it blocks out the sun. Without the sun, the zooxanthellae cannot perform photosynthesis and so they die. Without the zooxanthellae, the coral polyps die too. This algae is usually eaten by fish, but because of over fishing, there aren't enough fish left to eat all the algae. And the pollution we dump in the ocean is just what the algae needs to grow and be healthy, which means covering and eventually killing the coral reefs.

The direct way in which humans destroy coral reefs is by physically killing them. All over the world, but especially in the Philippines, divers catch the fish that live in and around coral reefs. They sell these fish to fancy restaurants in Asia and to fancy pet stores in the United States. This would be OK if the divers caught the fish carefully with nets and didn't hurt the reefs or take too many fish. But the divers want lots of fish and most of them are not very well trained at fish catching. Often they blow up a coral reef with explosives (picture below) and then catch all the stunned fish swimming around. This completely destroys the reefs, killing the coral polyps that make it as well as many of the plants and animals that call it home. And the creatures that do survive are left homeless.

Another way that divers catch coral reef fish is with cyanide. Cyanide is a poison. The divers pour this poison on the reef, which stuns the fish and kills the coral. Then they rip open the reef with crowbars and catch the fish while they are too sick from the poison to swim away. This poison kills 90% of the fish that live in the reef and the reef is completely destroyed both by the poison and then by being ripped apart.

All this may seem a bit depressing, but there are many groups in the world dedicated to saving the coral reefs. These groups work to educate people about the destruction of coral reefs. They lobby the United States Congress as well as the governments of other nations, trying to convince them not to buy fish that have been caught by destroying coral reefs. They encourage governments to crack down on pollution, both into the ocean and into the air, which causes global warming. They encourage visitors to coral reefs to be careful not to harm them. They even build artificial reefs to replace the reefs that have been destroyed. If you want to learn more about these groups, visit some of their websites, like the Coral Reef Alliance, Reef Relief, and the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation.

PHILIPPINES MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM & BIODIVERSITY
Mangroves - are salt-tolerant, woody, seed-bearing plants that are found in tropical and subtropical areas where they are subject to periodic tidal inundation. The Philippines has over 40 species of mangroves and is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world as there are only about 70 species of mangroves worldwide. The mangrove ecosystem is a very diverse one and is home to many birds, fish, mammals, crustaceans and other animals.

ROOT SYSTEM
Mangroves are very specialized plants and have adapted to survive in a very harsh environment where other plants cannot survive. An example of an interesting adaptation is the root system of mangroves. Since mangroves often live in muddy environments where gas exchange is difficult, the root systems of many mangrove species are highly specialized. One example of this is pneumatophores or breathing roots which look like fingers sticking out of the ground which are seen on Avicennia spp. (api-api) and Sonneratia spp. (pagatpat) trees. Other roots which grow out from branches and the trunk of mangrove trees such as those on Rhizophora spp. (bakaun) are called stilt or prop roots. These roots contain lenticels or breathing holes which allow gas exchange above the ground. These stilt roots also provide support and anchorage during high winds and wave action as well as serving as an attachment substrate for many marine organisms. Other species have knee or knob roots above the ground such as seen in Busain.

ADAPTATIONS: EXCRETERS/EXCLUDERS

Mangroves must also deal with the saltwater environment that they live in. While many mangrove trees grow best in a mixture of saltwater, an excessive amount of salt would certainly kill them. In order to deal with this mangrove species have developed a number of different adaptations. Certain trees such as api-api are excreters and they expel salt crystals from their leaves which is then washed away by the rain. Others are excluders and block salt from entering through their roots. They accomplish this by having a high innate concentration of salt in their roots which prevents water from entering against the osmotic gradient. Other plants are secluders which concentrate salt in certain leaves which turn yellow and die and expel the salt when these leaves die.

PROPAGULES
Mangroves also have adapted certain reproductive mechanisms to deal with the harsh salt water environment. One of these is the viviparous propagule or tungki found on bakuan. This propagule is already germinated on the tree and has a basic stem structure and can therefore easily be implanted in the substrate and quickly begin to grow. If the propagule does however fall in the water it has the ability to float for up to one year which aids greatly in dispersal of mangrove species.

FOOD FOR MARINE ORGANISMS

Mangroves provide an important nursery for fish, shellfish and other organisms. It is estimated that each hectare of mangrove produces 3,600 kg of litterfall which provides food for 1,000 kg of marine organisms. With the abundance of food for fish present in the mangroves, each year one hectare of forest yields 283.5 metric tons of fish per year. Mangroves also provide other important functions such as preventing soil erosion and protecting shoreline from typhoons and strong waves. Mangroves provide many other products and services such as medicines, alcohol, housing materials and are an area for research and tourism.

THREATS
Even with all of these known benefits the state of mangroves within the Philippines is very dim. In the early 1900’s there were approximately 500,000 hectares of mangroves but today there are only about 120,000 hectares. Many of the mangrove areas were destroyed to make way for fishponds and reclamation areas. They were used indiscriminately for housing materials and were disturbed by siltation and pollution. Now that the true benefit of these ecosystems is known there is protection and rehabilitation of these important ecosystems. It is now illegal to cut down mangroves for any purpose and local governments and community organizations have taken active roles in planting and managing mangrove plantations. There is hope that in the future mangroves will return to the healthy status that they once held in the past.

El Nino and La Nina Weather Disturbances, Typhoons (Phil Setting)

El Niño/La Niña
In a previous Economic Issue of the Day (Vol. V, No. 1, July 2005), a basic understanding was presented on what the El Niño southern oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon is all about, its characteristics and two phases, and its implications.

ENSO is a phenomenon that takes place in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific largely characterized by an interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere and their combined effect on climate. The mutual interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere is a critical aspect of the ENSO phenomenon.

Major ENSO indicators are the sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) and the southern oscillation index (SOI). SSTA refers to the departure or difference from the normal value in the sea or ocean surface temperature. El Niño events are characterized by positive values (greater than zero) within a defined warm temperature threshold while La Niña events are characterized by negative values (less than zero) within a defined cold temperature threshold.

The SOI, on the other hand, measures the differences or fluctuations in air or atmospheric pressure that occur between the western and eastern tropical Pacific during El Niño and La Niña episodes. It is calculated on the basis of the differences in air pressure anomaly between Darwin in Australia (western Pacific) and Tahiti in French Polynesia (eastern Pacific). These two locations/stations are used in view of their having long data records.

Albeit the seeming straightforward description of these ENSO-related events as noted in the above, it is to be emphasized that through the years, it has not been easy to come up with a commonly agreed definition and identification of these ENSOrelated events, i.e., El Niño or La Niña. The reason is due to the use of more than one standard index as basis in monitoring ENSO phenomena and the employ of different methods in determining the magnitude or value of such index and threshold as well as the length of time that such magnitude persists. In line with this, the Philippines adopted the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Regional Association IV Consensus Index and Definitions of El Niño and La Niña. Region IV includes the North and Central America member nations of the WMO, whose operational definitions in use of the two ENSO phases are the following:
El Niño: A phenomenon in the equatorial Pacific Ocean characterized by a positive SST departure from normal (for the 1971-2000 base period) in the Niño 3.4 region, greater than or equal in magnitude to 0.5 degrees C, and averaged over three consecutive months. Defined when the threshold or value is met for a minimum of five consecutive overlapping seasons.

La Niña: A phenomenon in the equatorial Pacific Ocean characterized by a negative SST departure from normal (for the 1971-2000 base period) in the Niño 3.4 region greater than or equal in magnitude to 0.5 degrees C, and averaged over three consecutive months. Defined when the threshold or value is met for a minimum of five consecutive overlapping seasons.

When is El Niño/La Niña occurring?
Because ENSO-related phenomena have been a major source of interannual climate variability around the globe, especially in recent years, it is important to be able to determine or identify when an El Niño/La Niña is occurring or will take place.

As noted earlier, monitoring the occurrence of an El Niño/ La Niña involves the use of two most common indicators, the SSTA and the SOI, with the SSTA based on the magnitude of departures/anomalies in the sea surface temperature in the Niño regions (see box), and the SOI based on the difference in air pressure between Tahiti and Darwin.

PAGASA: monitoring El Niño/La Niña events in the Philippines
In the Philippines, how is El Niño/La Niña identified/monitored? The country’s national meteorological agency, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), defines and identifies these phenomena on the basis of the abovementioned indicators which are also being used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-National Centers for Environmental Prediction
(NOAA-NCEP) of the United States.

Typhoons in the Philippines
Describes the most notable tropical cyclones to enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility and affect the Philippines. Bagyo is a term referring to any tropical cyclone in the Philippine Islands. An average of 6 to 7 tropical cyclones hit the Philippines per year. A bagyo is categorized into four types according to its wind speed by the PAGASA. All tropical cyclones, regardless of strength, are named by PAGASA. Tropical depressions have maximum sustained winds of between 55 kilometres per hour (30 kn) and 64 kilometres per hour (35 kn) near its center. Tropical storms have maximum sustained winds of 65 kilometres per hour (35 kn) and 119 kilometres per hour (64 kn). Typhoons achieve maximum sustained winds of 120 kilometres per hour (65 kn) to 185 kilometres per hour (100 kn), with super typhoons having maximum winds exceeding 185 kilometres per hour (100 kn). The most destructive tropical cyclone to impact the Philippines was Tropical Storm Thelma in 1991, which killed thousands of people from its resultant flooding. The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago was the July 1911 cyclone which dropped over 1,168 millimetres (46.0 in) of rainfall within a 24 hour period at Baguio City. At least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines could be traced to tropical cyclones, while the southern islands receive less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall from tropical cyclones

Friday, March 12, 2010

Solid Waste Management (RA 9003), Biodegradable-vs-non biodegradable, and other hazardous wastes

Nonbiodegradable Waste

Non-biodegradable Garbage

Soil is getting polluted by pesticides, factory wastes, the reclamation of poisonous industrial and household wastes, and the careless abandonment of non-biodegradable garbage. Some of those wastes remain under the ground for 500 years, which pollutes the environment.

Recently, the wastes that are not rotten easily, such as bottles, cans, plastics, vinyl, Styrofoam, and aluminum, are increasing so how to treat them is a worry. Incinerating the rotten wastes is a treatment way, but it can pollute the air or can generate the substances that have bad influence on organisms. And it causes other environmental problems. Therefore, the quantity of wastes generated should be reduced as far as possible, and recyclable wastes should be recycled.

Segregation of waste

Waste can be segregated as
1. Biodegradable and
2. Nonbiodegradable.

Biodegradable waste include organic waste, e.g. kitchen waste, vegetables, fruits, flowers, leaves from the garden, and paper.

Nonbiodegradable waste can be further segregated into:
a) Recyclable waste – plastics, paper, glass, metal, etc.
b) Toxic waste – old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.
c) Soiled – hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids.
Toxic and soiled waste must be disposed of with utmost care.

Full resolution‎ (1,501 × 1,140 pixels, file size: 482 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)

Description	Biodegradable waste.jpg Biodegradable waste in a trashcan.
Date	September 2005(2005-09)
Source	Own work
Author	Photo taken by Muu-karhu
Permission (Reusing this file)	The author put it under the GFDL and CC-BY-SA

Biodegradable waste is a Type of waste, typically originating from Plant or Animal sources, which may be broken down by other living organisms. Waste that cannot be broken down by other living organisms may be called non-biodegradable.

Biodegradable waste can be commonly found in Municipal solid waste (sometimes called biodegradable municipal waste, or BMW) as Green waste, Food waste, Paper waste, and Biodegradable. Other biodegradable wastes include Human waste, Manure, Sewage, Slaughterhouse waste.

Treatment

Through proper Waste, it can be converted into valuable products by Compost, or Energy by Waste processes such as Anaerobic digestion and Incineration. Anaerobic digestion is the process in which Microorganisms break down Biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. As part of an integrated Waste system, anaerobic digestion reduces the emission of Landfill into the atmosphere.

Composting converts biodegradable waste into Compost. Anaerobic digestion converts biodegradable waste into several products, including Biogas and soil amendment (Digestate). Incineration as well as biogas can be used to generate electricity and/or heat for District heating.

Global warming

Biodegradable waste is an important substance due to its links with Global warming. When it is disposed of in landfills, it breaks down under uncontrolled anaerobic conditions. This produces landfill gas which, if not harnessed, escapes into the atmosphere. Landfill gas contains Methane, a more potent Greenhouse gas than Carbon dioxide.

The European Union Landfill puts key requirements on member states for the management of biodegradable waste in order to stop global warming.

Philippine Republic Act No.9003

REPUBLIC ACT 9003 January 26, 2001

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR AN ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM, CREATING THE NECESSARY INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS AND INCENTIVES, DECLARING CERTAIN ACTS PROHIBITED AND PROVIDING PENALTIES, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representative of the Philippines in Congress assembled:

CHAPTER I BASIC POLICIES

Article 1 General Provisions

Section 1. Short Title - This Act shall be known as the "Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000."

Section 2. Declaration of Policies - It is hereby declared the policy of the State to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program which shall:

(a) Ensure the protection of the public health and environment;

(b) Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable resources and encourage resource conservation and recovery;

(c) Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction through source reduction and waste minimization measures, including composting, recycling, re-use, recovery, green charcoal process, and others, before collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate and environmentally sound solid waste management facilities in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles;

(d) Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practice in ecological waste management excluding incineration;

(e) Promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste management and resource conservation techniques, more effective institutional arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste reduction, collection, separation and recovery;

(f) Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;

(g) Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national government, other local government units, non- government organizations, and the private sector;

(h) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through the application of market-based instruments;

(i) Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national and local integrated, comprehensive, and ecological waste management programs; and

(j) Strength the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and non-formal education in order to promote environmental awareness and action among the citizenry.

Article 2 Definition of Terms

Section 3. Definition of Terms - For the purposes of this Act:

(a) Agricultural waste shall refer to waste generated from planting or harvesting of crops, trimming or pruning of plants and wastes or run-off materials from farms or fields;

(b) Bulky wastes shall refer to waste materials which cannot be appropriately placed in separate containers because of either its bulky size, shape or other physical attributes. These include large worn-out or broken household, commercial, and industrial items such as furniture, lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets, and other similar items;

(d) Buy-back center shall refer to a recycling center that purchases of otherwise accepts recyclable materials from the public for the purpose of recycling such materials;

(e) Collection shall refer to the act of removing solid waste from the source or from a communal storage point;

(f) Composting shall refer to the controlled decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms, mainly bacteria and fungi, into a humus-like product;

(g) Consumer electronics shall refer to special waste that includes worn-out, broken, and other discarded items such as radios, stereos, and TV sets;

(h) Controlled dump shall refer to a disposal site at which solid waste is deposited in accordance with the minimum prescribed standards of site operation;

(i) Department shall refer to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;

(j) Disposal shall refer to the discharge, deposit, dumping, spilling, leaking or placing of any solid waste into or in an land;

(k) Disposal site shall refer to a site where solid waste is finally discharged and deposited;

(l) Ecological solid waste management shall refer to the systematic administration of activities which provide for segregation at source, segregated transportation, storage, transfer, processing, treatment, and disposal of solid waste and all other waste management activities which do not harm the environment;

(m) Environmentally acceptable shall refer to the quality of being re-usable, biodegradable or compostable, recyclable and not toxic or hazardous to the environment;

(n) Generation shall refer to the act or process of producing solid waste;

(o) Generator shall refer to a person, natural or juridical, who last uses a material and makes it available for disposal or recycling;

(p) Hazardous waste shall refer to solid waste management or combination of solid waste which because of its quantity, concentration or physical, chemical or infectious characteristics may:

(1) cause, or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or

RA No.9225 - Citizenship Retention and Re-acquisition Act of 2003

RA No.7042 - Foreign Investments Act of 1991

RA No.7638 - Department of Energy Act of 1992

RA No.8485 - Animal Welfare Act of 1998

RA No.9003 - Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

RA No.9003 Sec 9 - Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

RA No.9048 - Animal Welfare Act of 1998

RA No.9211 - Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003

RA No.9211 Sec 15 - Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003

RA No.9211 Sec 25 - Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003

RA No.9211 Sec 34 - Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003